V* 


* • • s \ * 

J** ■ 


s.9 .s 


5 * 










vPb 






*\*L^-% 






„4 c> 1-0^ 



*^ O^ "> - • * ^O 

















,<y 



'- ^o* 



k v 






"> 






V 



J 



,0° 



*"0 



y 



;- ^d« 



c> 



v^ 



'\ 






,-f 



^o< 



^^, 






v ; 









AN OBJECTIVE METHOD FOR DETERMINING 

CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 

IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURAL 

EDUCATION 



EDGAR C. HIGBIE 



Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy, 
Columbia University. 



AN OBJECTIVE METHOD FOR DETERMINING 

CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 

IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURAL 

EDUCATION 



EDGAR C. HIGBIE 



Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy, 
Columbia University. 



/ 









5.AY I 






AN OBJECTIVE METHOD FOR DETERMINING 
CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 
IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURAL 
EDUCATION 

INTRODUCTION 

There is a tendency to distinguish somewhat sharply be- 
tween general education and vocational training for farm boys. 
Whether this is advisable may be an open 
There is a probable question. However, it aids in simply- 
advantage in distin- fying the problem of curriculum-making 
guishing rather in that we can decide more easily what 
sharply between knowledge really functions in a particu- 
general education lar phase of instruction. Using such 
and vocational knowledge as a basis we can then more 
training. readily derive the necessary principles 

and devise the best training courses. 
Ihe ideas of minimal essentials and job analyses are com- 
ing to be especially helpful in what they can contribute to the 
field of secondary agricultural instruc- 
Nature as well as tion. 1 One cannot, however, press the 
nurture needs con- study of these problems very far without 
sideration in educa- realizing the importance of another line 
tional questions. that will not permit itself to be disre- 

garded when questions of materials and 
methods are under consideration. Kelly feels that nature is more 
important than nurture in deciding certain educational prin- 
ciples. 2 Educational and vocational direction have been receiv- 
ing much attention in city schools and urban trades and indus- 
tries, but the writer is beginning to think that "fitness for farm- 

1. They are helpful, not in determining all that should be 
taught but rather in aiding in the selection of the vital from the 
mass of available material and organizing it into problems, pro- 
jects, units, etc. 

2. Educational Guidance, by Truman L. Kelly, Ph. D. — 
Teachers College Contribution to Education, Pages 13 and 72. 



6 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

ing" must be studied as well as "training for farming." Any- 
one familiar with rural life recognizes that some men are na- 
tural-born farmers, successful even with very limited oppor- 
tunities and training. They progress rapidly through the hired 
man, the tenant and the mortgage stages to independent owner- 
ship and wealth, as wealth goes in farming. "You just can't 
keep some men down" applies in this as well as in other occu- 
pations. Behind the farm management factors of size, diversity 
and productivity are personal qualities that may condition suc- 
cess and that may need consideration in curriculum-making, or 
boy-training, to a larger extent than has yet been recognized. 
So many men succeed without special training; so many fail 
with everything, apparently, in their favor. 

Are there special qualities which tend to insure success? 
If there are, how can they be determined? And when known, 
can they be induced, developed or grafted on to the ordinary 
individual? Or, can they be pre-determined and become the 
basis for effective vocational direction? If there are definite 
characteristics or qualities that tend to appear in the more suc- 
cessful portion of the farming population, what relation have 
they to the selection and organization of subject matter — indeed 
to the whole scheme of secondary agricultural education? 

It is in the hope of opening up this more or less unex- 
plored field that the present study has been pursued. In arriv- 
ing at the stage of the inquiry indicated 
Subject — matter above the following steps or questions 
needs early atten- have been considered : How shall pro- 
tion in educational spective instructors be properly trained for 
considerations. successful agricultural teaching? The 

further the study of this question was 
carried the greater seemed the necessity for answering a sec- 
ond question, namely, how can basic questions in teacher-train- 
ing be disposed of without more surety as to what shall be 
taught? This, of course, necessitates delving into the secondary 
agricultural subject-matter problems and here again is confu- 
sion. Secondary curricula as imitations of college curricula, or 
more often merely "reduced portions" of collegiate subject-mat- 
ter, were far from satisfactory. What shall we teach? How 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 7 

shall we teach? Shall we train for general agricultural intelli- 
gence or for specific production? The further these studies 
were urged the more confusion seemed to result. 3 Finally, so 
far as subject-matter is concerned, this question presented itself: 
Would it be possible to determine what specific facts or prin- 
ciples really functioned in successful agricultural production? 
The answer to this is important, as the results of this study 
will clearly show and an outline plan for the determination of 
such working knowledge will be given later. Leaving for the 
present any further consideration of subject-matter problems, 
let us state the final question, already suggested and forced into 
the study, as being vital to the whole field. Do men tend to 
succeed in farming by virtue of their physical capacity, their 
special skills, their mechanical abilities, their general education, 
their command of technical facts, or by virtue of a special type of 

intelligence conditioning ability to plan. 
Can the type of man to organize, to risk, etc? In a word would 
that tends to sue- it contribute to the discussion if the type 
ceed in farming be of man could be "brought into the clear" 
"brought into the — the type that tends to succeed even with 
clear"? a minimum of training, and regardless, 

sometimes, of much preliminary experi- 
ence? Would it, perhaps, help to change the focus of our teach- 
ing from that of imparting useful knowledge about soils, crops, 
stock and the like to that of training the boy, trying to consider 
and organize that training around such possible factors as man- 
agement, business ability, etc? Furthermore, would it give us 
a basis for directing some boys into such agricultural specialties 
as poultry raising, truck gardening, and green house work if 
they appeared to lack those managerial qualities that the general 
farmer seems to require. 

3. At this point the idea of a job-analysis, applied so well 
by Allen to trades and industries, seemed to offer a way out of 
the maze and the writer would like to call attention to some ex- 
cellent work being done by Kent and Williams in applying this 
method. He believes that they are overcoming what might be 
urged as an objection to the Allen idea, namely, that it applies 
directly to the worker in industry rather than the manager. The 
farm job is a complex approximating the managerial type some- 
what more than even the skilled labor type of occupation. 



8 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

The Successful Farmer. 
The determination of the chief characteristics of the suc- 
cessful, all-round farmer becomes, then, the first and in some 

ways the most important question to be 
The characteristics attacked. In view of the possible value 
of the all-round gen- of the method used in this study for de- 
eral farmer as op- termining characteristics in other types 
posed to the speci- of farming, such as poultry raising, 
alty farmer need truck gardening, fruit growing, etc., or 
consideration. even in totally different occupations, the 

procedure will be given in considerable 

detail. 4 
The following characteristics, qualities, conditions, or abili- 
ties were chosen after considerable thought as being the most 
usable and valuable for study. The definitions were carefully 
and briefly drawn so as to obtain as clear-cut comparison as 
possible. 5 Each quality will be known throughout the study by 
the letter preceding it in the definition list. A small letter "r" 
with two succeeding letters in parentheses will be read as tht 
correlation between the two items on this list that the letters 
represent. For example, r(fi)=.732 will mean that the correla- 
tion between financial success and native intelligence equals .732. 

(i) Native Intelligence: Original mental ability re- 
gardless of education or special training; mental alertness, 
thought power. 

(e) General Education: Schooling or education ac- 
quired either in or out of school ; formal or self-education. 

(n) Agricultural Information: Working agricultural 
knowledge or facts acquired by attending an agricultural school, 
short courses, institutes or by reading farm papers, bulletins, etc. 

4. The reader is requested to focus his attention on the 
method at first rather than on the results obtained. Later an 
attempt will be made to interpret the data as well as to justify 
their reliability. 

5. Other qualities such as industriousness, character, na- 
tivity, etc. were taken into consideration, but the natural limits 
of the study prevented any further extension of the list. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 9 

(m) Managerial Ability: Efficiency in organizing farm 
work and balancing the factors of production; planning, fore- 
sight. 

(k) Field and Chore Skills: Working to advantage as 
in teaming, pitching hay or bundles, shouldering sacks of grain, 
etc. 

(c) Mechanical Ability: Ability to construct or repair 
farm tools and devices. 

(b) Business Ability: Buying, selling, bargaining, ac- 
counting. 

(p) Physical Capacity: Strength and endurance in the 
prime of life regardless of present health or age. 

(u) Unpaid Family Labor : Free help from wife or chil- 
dren in the production of crops, etc. 

To the above were added two others to be considered 
more especially as criteria. 

(f) Financial Success : Ability to make money in pro- 
ducing crops, raising stock, or the like. 

(v) Community Value: Citizenship, good living stand- 
ard; substantial worth in* the life of the community. 

If the reader will work out a sample from his own experi- 
ence like the one given in Form A, he will be in a much better 
mental position to understand the method and follow the later 
development and implications of the study. 



10 



BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

FORM A. a 



Names 


Finance 


Physical 


Delta 


(Disguised) 


Success (f) 


Capacity (p) 


Differences 


W. B. 


13 


11 


minus 2 


R. R. 


4 


4 





G. Z. 


3 


3 





T. H. 


6 


5 


minus 1 


W. W. 


11 


12 


plus 1 


A. W. 


10 


8 


minus 2 


N. S. 


5 


1 


minus 4 


R. D. 


1 


2 


plus 1 


A. K. 


7 


6 


minus 1 


H. F. 


2 


13 


plus 11 


R. T. 


8 


7 


minus 1 


S. M. 


12 


9 


minus 3 


L. V. 


9 


10 


plus 1 



SG=±14 



A blank sheet of paper may be ruled roughly like Form 
A. In the left column the names of thirteen farmers should be 
written. These should be men actually 
(or very recently) living on farms, mak- 
ing their living from farming and with 
whom the person rating is well acquainted 
in their home, financial and community 
relationships. Reading the definition for 
financial success as given on page 9 
choose the man who best fits the description, that is, the man 
who is most successful in making money by raising crops, stock, 
etc., and place a figure "1" after his name in the column headed 
"Finance Success." Then re-read the same definition and choose 
the man who is the least successful in this respect. Place a 



Groups of farmers 
may be rated ac- 
cording to excel- 
lence or accomplish- 
ment. 



6. The data used in Form A were taken from the report of 
a Kansas senior in Farm Management and therefore represent 
an actual group of farmers — men with whom this senior is well 
acquainted in their home, farm and community relationships. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 11 

figure "13" after his name in this same column. Next decide 
which man should be considered as second most successful and 
place a figure "2" after his name. Likewise decide who should 
be considered next to the least successful and place a figure 
"12" after his name. Continue this, working from the extremes, 
until the numbers "1" to "13" appear in the "Finance" column 
representing the numbering of the men were it possible to stand 
them up before one in the order of their financial success. 

Follow this same procedure for "Physical Capacity" as 
defined. Again imagine the thirteen men to be standing in line 
before you. The order would be some- 
The Spearman "foot what different. W. B. (See form A) e. g. 
rule" formula pro- would be transferred to a position two 
vides a simple meth- places up from the lower end of the scale. 
od for obtaining de- The next two men would hold their old 
sired correlations places. T. H. would go up one place. W. 
from the data at W. would go down one place. N. S. 
hand. leaves fifth for first place. H. F., a very 

successful man financially, goes to the 
lowest place so far as physical capacity is concerned. In spite 
of this one considerable change, together with several lesser 
ones which keep the balance, you will feel that as a whole there 
has not been any very decided re-arrangement. The two sep- 
arate rankings of the men are not very dis-similar. This like- 
ness, or unlikeness, as the case may be, can be measured — can 
be weighted and stated as a single number. The "Delta Column" 
gives the basis for this measurement. The positive differences 
must always equal the negative differences. The total of either 
may be known as Summation G(SG). Applying the Spearman 
Foot Rule Correlation formula 7 the value of this mutual relation- 

6SG 

7. R=l . SG in this case equals "14" and n (num- 

n 2 — 1 

6x14 

ber of men) equals "13." R— 1 =.500. It is custo- 

169—1 
mary 1o state the Spearman values in terms of the Pearson 
formula values and in this case R(fp)=.500 or r(fp)=.732. See 
pages .167 to 177 Thorndike's Mental and Social Measurements. 



12 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

ship is found to equal .500, or in terms of Pearson's formula, 
.732. If there were no change in positions of the men SG 
would equal zero and the correlation would be perfect and equal 
plus 1.00. If the positions were completely reversed the correla- 
tion would approximate minus 100. If they were purely random, 
SG equalling 28, the correlation would be zero. This then de- 
fines the limits and determines the central point of a scale which, 
if stated in tenths covers twenty steps 
4- 1 000 from -}-l-00 to — 1.00. 8 The correlation 

r(fp)=.732 obtained above then may be 
conceived of as appearing well up toward 
the top of this scale and therefore should 
be considered as high in value. With 
this particular group of thirteen men (as- 
suming the rankings to be perfect) the 
relationship between financial success in 
farming and physical capacity is very 
marked. 



+ 


.900 


+ 


.800 


+ 


.700* 


+ 


.600 


+ 


.500 


+ 


.400 


+ 


.300 


+ 


.200 


+ 


.100 




.000 


— 


.100 


— 


.200 


— 


.300 


— 


.400 


— 


.500 


— 


.600 


— 


.700 


— 


.800 


— . 


900 


— 


1.000 



Just what this correlation means may 
be determined by considering a question 
like this : "Is physical capacity as defined 
on page 9. a cause of financial success, as 
regards this particular group, or is it mere- 
ly a concomitant- characteristic that hap- 
pens to rank high. Relationships or cor- 
relation may be high without necessarily 
being causal. We should scarcely say 
that financial success was a cause of physical capacity, yet a 

8. When n=13, as a matter of fact, it is impossible to reach 
—1.00. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 13 

correlation is often considered both ways. Remembering that 
farming involves much heavy lifting like pitching hay, should- 
ering sacks of grain, etc. and often long 
Relations between hours, demanding much endurance, one 
characteristics or is inclined to believe that physical capa- 
qualities may be city tends to be a "causal factor" in mak- 
causal or merely ing money in farming. Just how im- 
concomitant. portant a factor will be discussed when 

more evidence is in. So far we are only 
asking for a clear understanding of a rather simple process for 
obtaining, in the form of a single arithmetical weighting, the 
possible relationship between such illusive (and often other- 
wise immeasurable) factors as the ones listed. To find the ab- 
solute correlation between financial success, e. g., and physical 
capacity the investigator might first need to obtain a large <U+*> 
group of farmers whose labor incomes had been determined by 
the usual farm management survey methods. Then arrange- 
ments would have to be made to subject each one of these men 
to a physical examination, the results of which would have to 
be stated in the form of an index figure representing the com- 
posite findings of the test or examination. Obviously, such 
procedure is well nigh impossible. 

Continuing to disregard for the present any consideration 
of the accuracy of the ratings or the value of the relationships 
suggested, let us describe the further steps followed in gather- 
ing the total data. 

Form B, given below, was decided upon after repeated 
try-outs with many groups. The data included were furnished 
by a senior in Farm Management in one of the Middle Western 
Agricultural Colleges. These, as well as all of the data from 
which basic conclusions are drawn, were obtained by the writer 
handling classes or groups of men in person at a number of 
universities, so that the procedure was sufficiently well stand- 
ardized as to make comparisons possible. The classes were 
asked to follow directions "on faith" until the period was nearly 
over so as to prevent any attempt to guess at the desires of the 
investigator. There was no intimation of what was to come 



14 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

out of the exercise until the main portion of the data was com- 
pleted. Then a sample rating was worked out before the class 
and the method explained as fully as pos- 
Procedure was sible in the short time available. After 
standardized and giving the work to several hundred peo- 
carefully guarded. pie and discussing many angles and ques- 
tions from instructors and bodies of keen 
students, the writer is convinced that there were few constant 
errors that might seriously affect the ultimate results. 9 

The men were seated as in a regular class or laboratory 
period. Each man was asked to make a list of fourteen or fifteen 
farmers whom he knew very well — preferably neighbors in his 
home community actually engaged in producing crops or stock 
or both for market. From this list thirteen names were finally 
copied in the left hand column of Form "B". After a 
careful reading of the definition for each column, each 
group was ranked for all of the columns, the completed report 
appearing as shown. Finally each student stated at the bottom 
of his report sheet that all of the men were farmers, and that he 
knew them very well. He also indicated the type of farming 
most nearly characteristic of the entire group. Reports without 
these statements or having material modifications were not used 
in the final computations. 

9. Under the later discussion of reliability certain unavoid- 
able and perhaps not very serious weaknesses of the method will 
be discussed. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



15 



9n I*A 
XjmnuiuicQ 


- - w 

.1 


piBduQ 


.... ... 




r^'troioM00'Hrgv0MN0\O 


X}ijiqy 
ss9uxsng 


rO^fOO^^vO'HOOCJNN't 


A^ijiqy 

|BDIUBqD9]^ 


rHVOfOtSOOON'HO'tlONNfO 


s llPlS 
9Joq3-ppi^ 


^MTtO\--<O^M\OfONfOOO 


Xji[iqy 

}U9UI9.§BU12J^ 




UOpBUIJOJUI 

|BJTH|tiDu3y 


fO^Hr0^t^-<0\0'-"t>»C<IOO(M<?N 


uopnonpg 

p3J9U9Q 


fOHfO^-rtO\CnoKNCOMO\ 


9DU9Sqp;uj 
9at;b^[ 


fOiOfOvO-HO^-MKfHOO(NjO\ 
•—i i— i i— 1 i— i 


SS9D9ng 
9DUBUUJ 


rOTj-cO^O^HO u ">'-<t'^CgoO<\lC\ 

>— 1 T— 1 1— < |— 1 


(qsiM noA" 
}i pasmSsiQ) 

S9UIBJSJ 


« « N ffi ^ ^' C/i Q «' fe H* ^ >' 
^' g < h ^ < £ « < ffi « w h4 



16 



BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 



The next step in the procedure is concerned with obtain- 
ing the "Delta" columns and Summation G's for the several 
relationships desired. First, Financial Success, being used as a 
criterion, the Delta differences between it and each successive 
column (See Table I) are obtained from the data in Form "B". 
The accompanying Table II is composed of correlation coeffici- 
ents as worked out from these same data. In order fully to un- 
derstand the steps in what is to follow, it would be well for the 
reader to work these correlations through checking the results 
with Table II. 

TABLE I. 
Delta Columns from Data of Form B. 8 



f&i 


f&e 


f&n 


f&m 


f&k 


f&c 


f&b 


f&r 


f&u 


f&v 














—12 


—12 





—2 








+1 


—3 


+ 1 


+1 


+8 


+2 


+1 








±1 














+1 











—2 


—2 





—2 


-2 


o 


+3 


+1 


+4 


+1 


—1 




















—3 





+1 


—1 


—4 

















—1 


—1 


—2 


—1 


—2 


—1 


+1 


+1 


—1 





+6 


+1 


—4 


+2 


+4 


+1 


+4 








+1 


+9 





+1 


+5 


+1 














—1 


—3 


+1 


—1 


—4 


+3 


—1 











+11 


+3 





+11 


+6 


+1 














—1 


+4 


—1 


—1 


+3 


+4 














—9 


—10 





—3 


—10 


—8 














—1 


+4 


—5 


+1 


+3 


+2 


±2 


±5 


±2 


±1 


±24 


±29 


±7 


±14 


±19 


±16 



9. "f" in each case is financial success used as a criterion 
with such other qualities as intelligence, education, etc. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 17 

TABLE II. 

Summation G's, Spearman Coefficients and Pearson Coefficients. 



Relationships 


SG's 


R's 


r's 


f & i 


2 


.928 


.995 


f & e 


5 


.822 


.965 


f & n 


2 


.928 


.995 


f & m 


1 


.964 


.998 


f & k 


24 


.143 


.242 


f & c 


29 


—.036 


—.071 


f & b 


7 


.750 


.932 


f & p 


14 


.500 


.732 


f & u 


19 


.322 


.514 


f & V 


16 


.429 


.654 



As stated previously, f and i indicate the relations be- 
tween financial success and native intelligence ; f and e, or n etc., 
substitutes education or information, or the other qualities for 
intelligence. 

Each successive column may be used as a criterion and 
delta differences between it and all other columns may be found. 
This it will be noted, makes it possible to obtain a great many 
inter-relationships or correlations — in the present study as many 
as forty or fifty will be found valuable. The symbols r(fi), r(ie), 
r(in), etc. will be used to indicate the correlations between (f) 
financial success and (i) native intelligence, between (i) native 
intelligence and (e) general education, between (e) general edu- 
cation and (n) agricultural information, etc. r(f etc.) means 
that financial success may be used as a criterion with all other 
characteristics; r(v etc.) means that community value may be 
similarly used with all other characteristics. 

Continuing to assume that the rankings as given on the 
various Form B's are correct for each particular group, it is 
necessary to multiply the number of groups ranked many fold 
in order to overcome the influence of such variable factors as 



18 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

size of farm, amount of capital, location, quality of soil, market- 
ing- facilities, etc. Therefore the final data used for this part of 

the study cover ratings of over one hun- 
Many separate dred fifty groups in several middle west- 
groups were rated ern states. Many more groups than this 
to overcome local number have been rated, but the data ful- 
variations. filling the requirements already stated 

alone have been used in the final conclu- 
sions. It may be interesting to note that, as a rule, each group 
represents a particular community and that these communities 
are widely scattered throughout a number of states. Separate 
studies of the correlations for each group show wide variations 
among the groups together with many significant and interest- 
ing peculiarities. This would be expected by any one at all 
familiar with farm life. 

Since communities and groups of farmers vary to such 
great degrees, it is necessary to combine the results for all of 
the groups in each relationship. This is done by finding the 
median of all the correlations for each particular relationship. 
The r's for each summation G, however, need not be computed. 
Since summation G's may appear in values from to 42, these 
may be arranged as a scale and the frequencies of the various 
values listed against this scale. The median of these frequencies 
is easily found 10 by counting in to the mid-point and noting at 
which summation G on the scale this appears. This summation 
G will give the correlation desired. This correlation is the cen- 
tral tendency of the relationships for all of the groups ranked. 
In the present study one hundred and fifty or more summation 
G's for each characteristic are listed from which such central 
tendencies are taken. 

10. See Chapters III and IV in Thorndike's Mental & So- 
cial Measurements. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



19 



SG 





1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

(22) 



Frequencies 



Frequencies 
Totaled 



1 
1 

1 
3 

1 
6 
5 
6 
6 

10 
6 

11 
8 

11 

10 



SG 



23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 



Frequencies 



Total 



Frequencies 
Totaled 



7 
11 
7 
7 
11 
5 
2 
2 
3 
1 
1 
5 
1 
3 
1 
1 



154 1 



An illustration of this is given. The scale with the fre- 
quencies for the relationship between financial success and phy- 
sical capacity appears above. Behind the particular relationship 
as given on Form A, page 10 were a group of thirteen Kansas 
farmers. The summation G=±14 for this group appears as 
one of the five check marks at the right of the number 14 on the 
scale. This summation G, representing thirteen men, is only 
one of the 154 summation G's, each representing separate groups 
of thirteen men. The mid-point of the frequencies on this scale 

11. The median will be found to be at point 22 on the scale 
by counting down the frequencies 77 points. 



20 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

is at SG 22. Substituting this value in the formula as given on 
page 11 and solving, r(fp) is found to equal .354. Thus behind 
this finally accepted total value for the relationship between 
financial success and physical capacity there are 154 different 
groups of thirteen men or 2002 different farmers scattered from 
Ohio to Oklahoma. In the following table (Table III) there- 
fore, each correlation (r) should be conceived of as being the 
central tendency value for all of the groups rated. Moreover, as 
will appear later in the study, this value would probably ap- 
proximate the value were 2,000,000 farmers rated instead of 2,000. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



21 







tx 




2) 


rf 


VO 


8 


rl- 


Tj- 


VO 


tx 






00 




o 


LO 




1-1 




o 




9n FA 




LO 




tx 


v£> 


^5 


IX 


LO 


-xfr 


VO 


CM 


X}iunuuucQ 


(A) 






















joqnq 






















g 


99JJ 


(n) 


























tJ- 


tx 


tx 


r— 1 


«t 




tx 


■tf" 






jBDisXqj 




LO 


T-H 


o 


tX 


to 




\o 


LO 






(d) 


CO 


eg 


CO 


q 


CO 




LO 


CO 






^i|iqy 




1—1 


vO 


CM 


\o 


,— 1 


CM 


<<*■ 








(q) 


O 
00 


o 
05 


tX 


o 


o 

00 


CO 
IX 


LO 








ssauisng 






















A";qiqv 




CO 


^t 


<* 


"tf- 


"t 




^ 






rf 




tx 




T-H 


i-H 


1— < 




LO 






LO 


(3) 


<sf 


«t 


LO 


^f- 


LO 




vO 






CO 


[H0IUBqD3^\[ 


























tx 


rj- 


8 

oo 


■* 


c 


IX 




■*■ 


rf- 


tx 


IIPIS 9Jot D 




tx 


i— i 
in 


«t 


o 
IX 


00 

LO 




LO 

o 


LO 


LO 


PUB ppij 


Ol) 


























00 


\Q 


CM 


o 




CM 


1 


Tf 


r— 1 


-* 


Aqxqv 




CO 


S 


tx 

ix 


o 




IX 

t^ 


LO 


O 

00 


LO 

CO 


P2U9SBUBJAJ 


(in) 


























Q 


1 


CM 


,H 


CM 




IX 




CM 




uoi}biujojut 




tX 


CO 


o 

00 


t^ 
IX 




00 

LO 




CO 
tx 




|Bjn;|nDu§y 


(u) 


























■<fr 


^t- 


CM 




VD 


T-H 


<* 


■St- 


8 


i— 


uopBonpg 




I— ( 
LO 


LO 


CO 

ix 




O 


o 

00 


1— 1 
<* 


1— 1 


tx 

O 


p3J9U3J[) 


(3) 


























CM 


8 
tx 




CM 


CO 


CM 


so 


Tl- 


CM 


tx 


9DU9.§qj9;uT 




CO 
IX 




CO 

IX 


IX 

tx 


CO 
IX 


o 


LO 


LO 

tx 


O 
CO 


9at;b^[ 


(!) 




























tx 


CM 


"*■ 


00 


8 

IX 


IX 


CM 


1—4 


^ 


ssgoon^ 






00 

LO 


CO 
In. 


LO 


00 


IX 


tx 


o 

00 


LO 

CO 


JT31D1IBUUJ 


(J) 




























>, 


<U 




"n5 


a c 


m 












.2 efl 


4-» 

'5 


C 
<v 
be 

> ^ 


c 
o 

"«* '"5 

1-1 ™ 


nagen 
ity 

icultur 
rmatio 


-T-l ^ 

X u 


hanica 

ity 

iness 

ity 

sical 

acity 






.2 3 

fcl/2 


■fl <u 


C 3 


c3 rz 


t- o 




u .- 


en ~ 


>> rv 






O rt 






5-° ^ 


g<cq<o HU 














*--> 


^^ 


,_^ 


^^ 


s-^ 


^^ 






i*-c 


> 




<u 


B 


a 


J4 


u 


£> 


a. 



22 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

Preliminary Interpretations. 

Ability to make money, financial success in farming, will 
be taken as the first criterion in discussing possible conclusions 
from the data given in Table III. Placing in order of size the 
various correlations with financial success that order is as fol- 
lows: 12 

r(fm)=.848 r(fv)=.587 

r(fb)=.801 r(fe)=.514 

r(fi)=.732 r(fc)=.472 

r(fn)=.700 r(fp)=.354 

r(fk)=.677 r(fu)=.192 

In their relationships with financial success, the qualities 
defined on pages 8 and 9 may evidently be grouped as fol- 
lows: 

Important Less Important 

Managerial Ability Community Value 13 

Business Ability General Education 

Native Intelligence Mechanical Ability 

Technical Information Physical Capacity 

Field and Chore Skills Unpaid Family Labor 

From these data it is readily seen that such qualities or 
characteristics as managerial ability, business ability, native in- 
telligence, skills, etc. rank high and are of evident importance in 
attaining financial competence. On the other hand, education, 
mechanical ability, physical capacity and unpaid family labor, 
although positive in value, are of less importance in productive 
farming. All of the characteristics listed, except community 
value (which was introduced to be used as a broader criterion) 

12. Remember that "f" in each case refers to financial suc- 
cess and that r(fm)=.848 should be read as r(fm) and conceived 
of as the correlation between financial success and managerial 
ability. Similarly r(fu)=.192 is read r(fu) and is the value of 
the correlation between financial success and unpaid family la- 
bor. 

13. Not to be thought of as a cause; rather a criterion. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 23 

might act as causal factors. If so, the order and relative values 
become interesting. One often hears the intimation that large 

families with women and children work- 
The relative order ing at chores or in the fields are essential 
of t h e causal fac- to financial success. The older native 
tors of success is stock sometimes resents the coming of 
important. the newer, more prolific races into their 

communities and apparently forging 
ahead in spite of educational deficiencies and early finan- 
cial limitations. Rating for unpaid family help in produc- 
tion was obtained merely to get a check on this point. The ap- 
parently low value of this relationship, r(fu)=.192, which may 
be interpreted as meaning that help of that kind, beyond the 
community average, is not generally necessary for success, per- 
mits us to disregard it as liable seriously to affect any conclu- 
sions that may be needed in the development of educational prin- 
ciples. 

The correlation between financial success and physical 
capacity r(fp)=.354, is also so low as to eliminate itself in the 
matter of immediate consideration. It will, however, appear 
later as a minor factor of interest in its possible relationships to 
skills and mechanical ability. 

Very different, however, are the relationships between 
financial success and managerial ability, business ability, techni- 
cal information, etc. It is possible to conceive of men lacking in 
one or more of these qualities, apparently achieving success, but 
a closer study of conditions would probably reveal other factors 
operating, such as exceptional start, splendid soil, advantageous 
location and the like, which would tend to over-balance special 
personal handicaps. With such, more or less uncontrolled, fac- 
tors favorable plus good managerial and business ability backed 
by a fund of practical, working facts, what might be the success 
attained ! 

Undoubtedly all of the characteristics listed, except com- 
munity value, are direct causal factors of success in the order 
given. Size of family and physical capacity often backed up by 
non-American standards of living, however, do not take the place 



24 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

of importance that is sometimes ascribed to them. If these cor- 
relations hold (and they will be subjected to further tests and 
analyses), farming takes its place in the social order not only 
as a skilled type of work but as a profession requiring- direct 
managerial and business ability conditioned by special intelli- 
gence and training. The kind of training as an educational 
question will receive its merited attention later in the study. 

If it is objected that financial success is too low a stand- 
ard or criterion, it will be noted that the inter-correlation 
r(fv)=.587 indicates that financial success 
Financial success is and community value (see definition) 
a proper criterion. have a decided tendency to go together. 

Further, technical training is undoubtedly 
training for production and financial success is a result and pos- 
sible measure of production. Production, it may be added, is 
the usual measure of success in industry. 

Considering community value, not so much as a criterion 
but as to its conditioning elements, the following correlations 
are of interest: r(vi)=709; r(ve)=.654; r(vn)=700. 

These indicate that a man's value to his neighborhood is 
rather highly dependent upon or coincident with his native in- 
telligence, his technical information, and his general education. 
Incidentally this same man seems to possess rather positive 
qualities as a business man and as a manager. 

Continuing this method, one might discuss all of the basal 
and inter-relations, using each quality successively as a criterion, 
but this would be chiefly a matter of social interest and would 
not bear so directly upon the educational interpretations toward 
which the study is progressing. So far we have considered re- 
lationships between two qualities only. There remains a further 
step of special value in this type of investigation. 

Partial Correlations. 

Partial correlations offer one of the most interesting and 
valuable aids in interpreting the data at hand. Their possible 
use in analyzing out some of the more illusive factors and char- 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 25 

acteristics of various types of industry warrant a somewhat de- 
tailed description of their application to this particular study. 

Partial correlations aid in eliminating disturbing factors — 
distortions that occur because of the difficulty in rating pure 
qualities and relationships. Moreover, this 
Partial correlations very value in separating out the unde- 
provide a method of sired or disturbing elements makes it pos- 
analyzing charact- sible to analyze, to break them up into 
eristics. their elements. They provide for ex- 

ample, a method of analysis of such a 
complex as managerial ability. Their use may be illustrated by 
considering the pure relationship existing between financial suc- 
cess and field and chore skills. The definitions for field and 
chore skills and for mechanical ability seem to involve very dif- 
ferent concepts but both characteristics have to do with handl- 
ing external things — horses, tools, machines, and the like. It is 
very probable, therefore, that one's ratings for skills may be 
more or less mixed with one's rating for mechanical ability. If 
so, can the mechanical part of the skill be cast out of the rela- 
tionship? Or, to consider it as a chemist might in manipulating 
the elements in an experiment, can it be held constant or con- 
trolled while the other elements are eliminated or used in vary- 
ing relationships? Can the pure relationship between financial 
success and skill be determined while the mechanical element, 
that may be included inadvertently or by the very nature of the 
composition of desirable qualities due to valuable common ele- 
ments, is held in abeyance or control? 

Referring again to Table III, the following values may 
be found r(fk)=.677, r(fc)=.472, r(kc)=.654. These values 

may be called total values. In spite of 
Desirable qualities the large number of judgments behind 
may have common them there may be a constant tendency 
elements. to confuse skills and mechanical ability. 

Moreover, as suggested above, there are 
undoubtedly actual relations due to common elements that can- 
not be separated. From a common sense view this is very evi- 
dent. It is desirable to know, however, in deciding questions 



26 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

of subject-matter, how much time should be devoted to develop- 
ing farm skills, how much to training in carpentry, engine repair, 
and the like. What is the "pure" relation, we are anxious to dis- 
cover, between success in farming and field and chore skills? 
The following formula 14 provides a method of getting rid of 
the purely mechanical part of the relation and r(fk) :c may 
be read as the correlation between financial success and field 
and chore skills with mechanical ability eliminated, equalized 
or controlled: 

r(fk)-[f(fc)Xr(kc)] 
r(fk) :c= 



VI— r(fc) 2 VI— r(kc) 2 
Substituting the above values in this equation, it takes the form : 
.677— (.472X-654) 

r(fk) :c== 

.8827X-7599 

Solving, r(fk) :c=.549. This indicates that there was some 
confusion or constant error — the total correlation r(fk)=.677 
being in this case reduced in value to .548. On the other hand, 
what effect may a conception of skills have on a conception of 
mechanical ability? Solving similarly we find r(fc) :k=.052. 
This is rather startling. Does it mean that no mechanical abil- 
ity is needed on the farm? Obviously not, but it may mean 
that a peculiar type of mechanical ability is needed that tends in 
rating to get badly mixed with skills. At least, it opens up the 
question of kind of mechanical ability and any one familiar with 
actual mechanical knowledge needed in operating a farm knows 
that carpenterial ability as shown by a cabinet maker or house 
carpenter is not particularly desirable. Moreover, one may im- 
mediately call to mind instances where mechanically-minded 
farmers who purchased threshing rigs often finally lost not only 
their machines, but their farms as well. Suffice this correlation 
to show that the question needs attention if we are to devise 



14. See "An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics" by G. 
Undy Yule, Chas. Griffin & Co., Ltd., London ; Chapter on Par- 
tial Correlations ; also Mental and Social Measurements bv E. L. 
Thorndike, pages 180-182; and Educational Guidance.' T. L. 
Kelly, Ph. D., Teachers College Contributions to Education. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 27 

proper training work (manual training?) for farm boys. On the 
other hand, a real consideration of training for field and chore 
skills is shown to be needed, for over half of the people rated are 
probably farming with limited abilities in this respect. 

Again one is lead to ask how much physical capacity enters 
into this question of skills? Can we eliminate that also? 15 Sub- 
stituting the physical capacity correlation for mechanical ability, 
we use the following: r(fk)=.677, r(fp)=.354, r(kp)=.567, and 
solving the new equation r(fk) :p=.618. Again we are inclined 
to remember that it was not always the strongest boy that shoul- 
dered the sack of grain most easily or held out best in the long 
day's stacking work. One step further: Can we get both of 
these confusing factors out of skill, that is can we find the value 
of r(fk) :cp? Using the following formula: 

r(fk) :c-[r(fp) :cXr(kp) :c] 
r(fk) :cp= 



VI— r(fp) 2 :c \/l— r(kp) 2 :c 

we find that r((fk) :cp=.5l5. This tends again to back up the 
idea that there is a special farm type of skill that needs to be sub- 
jected to special study. Whether it is an innate ability or can be 
taught is also an important question. 

Two or more disturbing factors may be successively elim- 
inated. The formula for r(fi) :e n m, etc., will be the highest one 
used for this study. 16 In order to promote accuracy and facility 
it is desirable where a large number of relations are to be consid- 
ered to adopt a standard form of procedure. Table TV illus- 
trates this method. Column 1 is the total or partially cleared 
correlation; column 2 is the numerator of the formula; column 3 
is the denominator, and column 4 is the new or cleared, result- 
ing correlation. 

15. "Eliminate" or "cast out" should hereafter be consid- 
ered in this larger aspect suggested above. 

16. r(fi) :en — [r(fm) :enXi*(im) :en] 

r(fi) :enm= 



\/l — r(fm) 2 :en yi — r(im) 2 :en 



28 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

The use of Kelly's tables will greatly facilitate the compu- 
tation work. 17 Several of these should be studied through to 
obtain the full force and value of the method. Procedure with it 
tends to do away with skepticism that naturally at first arises. 
Table V which follows is taken from the computations as indi- 
cated for Table IV, the last column or the cleared correlation 
only being selected. 

17. Bulletin of University of Texas No. 27, 1916. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



29 





c 




o 








+J 




rt 


"«*■ 






u 




S-. 






£ 


c 


3 


U 






O 


— 


U 


OJ 




u 




a 




u 




y 



3- rs. 

91 



II 
ll 



> 



> 



^ o 

G rt 
G *- 

5 £ 
^2 



X 






.J, g 



ON 

r— < 1_T> 



oj G 



LO 00 



.'J c 



Q\N 

CO \o 



00 CO 



CO N 

CO VO 



CO CO 

00 00 

vO vo 



00 N 
CM ^ 



XX XX 



^H co 

vO 00 
00 o 



^f CO 

t-i CO 



co \0 



JJ 

CO CO 
CO co 

On On 

XX 

LO O 

CO o 

CO O 

CO 00 



vO CXI 
lo CM 

co O 



CM CXI 

CO co 



O ^t 
CXI o 
CXI *-i 



cx< cx< 

CO CO 



XX XX 



Tf CM 
^h CO 
LO t^ 



O CM 

O co 



r% co 

SCO 
CM 



o o 

CO CO 

XX 



VO CM 
■5" co 






On O 
co ^F 



G <u 
<u G 



O -H 

N CM 

N 00 



CM CM 

00 00 

XX 

\0 00 
CO On 
On On 



VO CO 
CM co 






XX XX 



LO O 



LO Tj- 

co O 



u 



CM ^h CM 
co t-h CO 
N lO N 




— o o 

irACO 



TT fx MD 
O *o lo 



t^ ,-< rx 

Tf LO VC 

O co lo 



£ 2 

— _ TO 
Mr?" 3 



.- c c 



.„ G G 



G G 



O 






JH 

'55 

G 
O 
o 

+■> 

o 

G 



+-> 
bx) 






CO 



30 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

TABLE V. 

r(fi) =.732; r(fi) :e=.604; r(fi) :n=.451 ; r(fi) :m=.229 
r(fi) :en=.525 

r(fe) =.514; r(fe) :i=— .047; r(fe) :n=— .110; r(fe) :m=.000 

r(fe) :b=.061 ; r(fe) :in=— .319; r(fe) :im=— .143 

r(fn) —700; r(fn) :i=.35l; r(fn) :e=557; r(fn) :m=. 134 
r(fn) :b=.278; r(fn) :ei=.458 

r(fm)=.848; r(fm) :k=.714; r(fm) :p=.824; r(fm) :i=.649 
r(fm) :e=.786; r(fm) :n=.675 ; r(fm) :c=.795 
r(fm) :b=.572; r(fm) :ie=.656; r(fm) :in=.586 
r(fm) :en=.679; r(fm) :ic=.636; r(fm) :kc=.713 
r(fm) :ib=.508; r(fm) :eb=.580; r(fm) :nb=.522 
r(fm) :ien=.554; r(fm) :kp=.728; r(fm) :cp=.785 
r(fm) :ip=635; r(fm) :ik=.564 

r(fk) =.677; r(fk) :m=.221 ; r(fk) :c=548; r(fk) :i=.430 

r(fk) :p=.618; r(fk) :im=197; r(fk) :cp=..515 

r(fc) =.472; r(fc) :k=.052 ; r(fc) :i=.163; r(fc) :m=. 079 
r(fc) :p=.396 

r(fb) =.801 ; r(fb) :m=.386; r(fb) :n=. 592; r(fb) :i=. 555 
r(fb) :e=. 717 

r(fp) =.354; r(fp) :i=. 198; r(fp) :k=050; r(fp) :c=.226 

r(ie) =.732; r(ie) :n=.356; r(ie) :p=.749; r(ie) :b=.527 
r(ie) :v=.501 ; r(ie) :m=.522 

r(in) =.732; r(in) :e=.356; r(in) :b=.403 ; r(in) :m=.334 
r(in) :v=.469. 

r(im) =.772; r(im) :e=.605 ; r(im) :n=.475 ; r(im) :k=.615 
r(im) :c=.684; r(im) :b=.428; r(im) :e=.605 
r(im) :en=.523; r(im) :p=.744 

r(ik) =.606; r(ik) :c=.412; r(ik) :m=.145 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
TABLE V— (Continued) 



31 



r(ic) =.514 



r(ic) :k=.196; r(ic) :m=.213 



r(ib) =752 



r(ib) :e=.568; r(ib) :n=.463 ; r(ib) :m=.350 



r(ip) =.307 



r(ip) :e=.374 



r(iv) =709 



r(iv) :e=.443; r(iv) ;n=.404 



r(en) =.801 



r(en) :b=.659; r(en) :v=.632; r(en) :m=.658 
r(en) :i=.567 



r(em)=.606 



r(em) :i=.094; r(em) :n=— .031 ; r(em) :b=.255 
r(era) :in= — .243 



r(ek) =.414 



r(ek) :c=.206 



r(ec) =.414 



r(ec) :k=.206. 



r(eb) =.606 



r(eb) :n=.049; r(eb) :m=.255 ; r(eb) :i=.124 



r(ep)=.071 



r(ep) :i=— .237 



r(ev) =.654 



r(ev) :i=. 281 ; r(ev) :n=.217 



r(nm)=772 



r(nm) :b=.454; r(nm) :e=.604; r(nm) :k=.626 
r(nm) :i=.475 ; r(nm) :ie=.516 



r(nv) =700 



r(nv) :e=.386; r(nv) :i=.376 



r(mk)=700 



r(mk) :e=.621 ; r(mk) :c=.556; r(mk) :i=.458 
r(mk) :p=.648; r(mk) :ic=.414; r(mk) :n=.480 



r(mc)=.514 



r(rac) :i=.213; r(mc) :p=.444; r(mc) :ik=— .022 
r(mc) :kp=.101 



r(mb)=801 



r(mb) :n=.541 ; r(mb) :v=.691 ; r(mb) :i=. 521 
r(mb) :e=.691 



r(mp)=.354; r(mp) :k=— .073 ; r(mp) :c=.213 ; r(mp) :i=.193 
r(mp) :kc=— .070 



32 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

TABLE V— (Concluded) 

r(mv)=.606; r(mv) :b=.255 

r(kc) =.654; r(kc) :i=.502; r(kc) :e— 581 ; r(ke) :p— 588 
r(kc) :m=. 478; r(kc) :im=465 

rfkp) =.567; r(kp) :c=.471 ; r(kp) :m=.477 

r(cp)=.354; r(cp) :k=— .027; r(op) :m=.213 ; r(cp) :km=— .019 

r(bn) =.732; r(bn) :i=.403 ; r(bn) :e=. 520; r(bn) :m=.298 

r(bv) =.606; r(bv) :m=.255 

r(nk)=.587; r(nk) :m=.103 

r(cp)=.354; r(cp) :m=.213 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 33 

Further Interpretations. 

In order to be sure that the reader understands the source 
of the data for Table V it will be well to review the succes- 
sive steps that have led up to it. Form 
The successive A, Page 10 gives the ratings on two of 
steps leading up to the eleven characteristics that were de- 
Table V need to be fined on pages 8 & 9. This is for one 
clearly understood. group only of thirteen farmers as reported 
by a Kansas Senior. It is thus simplified 
to show the method of obtaining the summation G's by finding 
the delta differences between the positions of the men in their 
own group. The SG obtained gives the datum for use in the 
Spearman "Foot Rule" formula described on page 11. The one 
other unknown quantity needed being n 19 or the number of men 
rated which in this study remains constant at thirteen. Form B 
given on page 15 is the blank on which the data for all of the 
groups were obtained. One hundred fifty-eight of these consti- 
tute the original data of this part of the study. 

Table I, page 16, shows how the successive SG's, using 
financial success as a criterion, were tabulated. Similar tables 
were obtained using each of the characteristics or criteria result- 
ing in over forty delta difference columns for each of the one 
hundred fifty-eight Form B's. Table II page 17 shows the 
tabulation of the successive SG's, the "Foot Rule" coefficients 
and the resulting Pearson coefficients for the relationships using 
financial success as a criterion. 20 Table III is the first composite 
table and contains the completed and finally accepted, total cor- 
relations. The characteristics listed across the top are to be con- 
sidered in relation to or in correlation with the successive cri- 

19. Not to be confused with the "n" used to denote "informa- 
tion" as a characteristic. 

20. The computation of each of these coefficients is un- 
necessary (see page 17) so that these tables will not appear 
as a matter of record. 



34 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

teria at the left. 21 They should be read as follows : The corre- 
lation between financial success and native intelligence equals 
.732; between financial success and managerial ability equals 
.848; the correlation between education and intelligence equals 
.732; between education and skills equals .414; and so on for all 
of the relationships listed. Finally Table V gives the resulting 
partial coefficients as obtainable from the data of Table III. 

Table III alone is of great interest and value and pro- 
vides a source for important principles of curriculum-making. 
Table V with its possibilities of further extension, however, pro- 
vides almost unlimited material for study in this field. The out- 
standing points only will be discussed. 

Let us approach the study of the data of Table V from the 
standpoint of the relative importance of 
The data of Table the causal factors of success as described 
V may be studied on pages 22 & 23. The highest factor — 
from the standpoint r(fm) equals .848, managerial ability — is 
of the apparent rel- evidently the major cause. From the 
ative importance of table let us select all of the financial 
the causal factors success-management correlations that 
of success. have been computed : 

r(fm) :p=.824 r(fm) :n=.675 

r(fm) :c=.795 r(fm) :i=.649 

r(fm) :e=.786 r(fm) :b=.572 

r(fm) :k=.714 
Using the data having only one characteristic eliminated or 
held constant it is readily seen that business ability enters more 
largely into the financial success, management relationships than 
does any other quality while physical capacity affects the rela- 
tionship least of all. Again native intelligence stands next to 
business ability in importance while mechanical ability stands 
next to physical capacity in lack of importance. The factors of 
importance and more or less non-importance may be listed as 
follows : 

21. Let it be constantly remembered that each value given 
in this table is the mid-point value of one hundred fifty differ- 
ent correlations. It is the central tendency of all of the rela- 
tionships that were obtained for the particular relationship in 
question. 





Important 




(b) 


Business ability 


(P) 


(i) 


Native intelligence 


(c) 


(n) 


Technical information 


(e) 


(k) 


Skills 





RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 35 

Less Important 

Physical capacity 
Mechanical ability 
Education 



The conclusion from these data seems very clear : The good 
farm manager is possessed of good business ability and a high 
native intelligence supported with a fund of technical informa- 
tion and considerable skill. On the other hand physical capac- 
ity, mechanical ability and general education take positions of 
less importance in the analytic break-up thus attempted. Let us 
select certain further partial correlations of interest from Table 
V and arrange them in order of size of the coefficients : 

r(fm) :cp=785 r(fm) :in=.586 

r(fm) :kp=.728 r(fm) :eb=.580 

r(fm) :kc=.713 r(fm) :ik=.564 

r(fm) :en=.679 r(fm) :ien=.554 

r(fm) :ie=.656 r(fm) :nb=.522 

r(fm) :ic=.636 r(fm) :ib=. 508 
r(fm) :ip=.635 

In this list the elimination from the financial success-man- 
agement relation of mechanical ability and physical capacity re- 
duces the value very little — r(fm) equals .848; r(fm) :c equals 
.795 ; r(fm) :p equals .824, and r(fm) :cp equals .785. It is clear, 
also, that mechanical ability is a stronger factor than physical 
capacity in affecting what deduction is obtained. Considering 
likewise the next highest partial correlation a similar result is 
found— r(fm)=848; r(fm) :k equals.714; r(fm) :p— 824; 
r(fm) :kp=.728. Skill, like mechanical ability, enters more 
largely than physical capacity into the financial-management re- 
lation. Approaching these from the other end of the list we have 
r(fm) :ib=.508. Evidently intelligence and business ability en- 
ter the relationship in question very decidedly. The partials 
r(fm) :b=.572 and r(fm) :'i—.649 indicate that business ability is 
the stronger of the two. This probably means that business 



36 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

ability has many elements in common with managerial ability 
while native intelligence may be considered as an important 
causal factor of both. 

Arranging a second list of relatively important factors or 
combinations of factors, we have the following: 

Important. Less Important 

Intelligence — business Mechanical — physical 

Information — business Skill — physical 

Intelligence — skills Skill — mechanical 

Education — business Education — information 

Intelligence — information Intelligence — education 

Intelligence — physique Intelligence — mechanical 

The elimination of the intelligence-education-information 
combination, r(fm) :ien=.554, considered in the light of r(fm) :i 
=.649; r(fm) :n— 675 ; r(fm) :in=.586; r(fm) :ie=.656; r(fm) :en 
=.679; and r(fm) :e=.786 seems to indicate that education is 
not a requisite element in the relationship. 

Again let us list all correlations having managerial ability 
used as a criterion : 

r(mi) :p=.744 r(mi) :n=.475 

r(mb) :v=691 r(mk) :i=.458 

r(mb) :e=.691 r(mi) :b=.428 

r(mi) :c=.684 r(mn) :b=.454 

r(rak) :p=.648 r(mc) :p=.444 

r(mn) :k=.626 r(mv) :b=.255 

r(mk) :e=.621 r(me) :b=.255 

r(mi) :e=.605 r(mp) :c=.213 

r(mn) :e=.604 r(mc) :i=.213 

r(mk) :c=.556 r(mp) :i=.193 

r(mb) :n=.541 r(me) :i=.094 

r(mk) :n=.480 r(me) :n=— .031 

r(mn):i=.475 r(mp) :k=— .073 

The management-intelligence relation remains little af- 
fected when physical capacity, mechanical ability and general 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 37 

education are successively eliminated. On the other hand it is 
much further reduced if information or business ability are taken 
out. 

The management-business relation is less affected by the 
presence of the general education factor than by the informa- 
tion factor. 

The management-skill relation is little affected by the 
presence of the physical or the education elements, slightly more 
by the mechanical element, and still more by the information 
and intelligence elements. 

The management-information relation is less dependent 
upon skills and education than upon native intelligence and 
business ability. 

The management-education relation is low at all times 
but the elimination of information and general intelligence fac- 
tors more seriously affect it than the elimination of the business 
factor. 

These partial correlations substantiate the first impres- 
sions regarding the importance of the managerial factor in 
farming. Moreover they enable us to analyze the farm man- 
agement characteristic into some of its elements. Of most im- 
portance in good management are those qualities that condition 
good business power. A quality common to both business 
power and managerial ability and probably indicative of the 
necessity of considering original nature in farm-training is na- 
tive intelligence. At all times this characteristic maintains its 
importance. This is noticeable even when business ability and 
information are eliminated and it is probable that such reduc- 
tions as are indicated by the series r(mi)=.772; r(mi) :n=.475 
and r(mi) :b=A2S are due to common elements rather than elim- 
inations. Another important factor in good management is tech- 
nical information. The lowest partials computed in this relation 
— r(ran) :i=.475 and r(mn) :b=AS4 — point to the same interpre- 
tations as suggested by the management-intelligence correlations. 
Field and chore skills and management also hold their tendency 
to keep together regardless of eliminations. 



38 



BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 



Managerial ability, therefore, is vital to success in farm- 
ing and it is a quality that depends far 
more on native intelligence than on edu- 
cation or training. It and business ability 
probably have many common elements 
which in turn are conditioned by a special 
a type of intelligence which should be sub- 



Managerial ability 
is vital to success in 
farming. 



type of intelligence- 
jected to further analyses. 



Next to managerial ability among the causal factors of 
success as given on pages 19-20 stands business ability. A 
partial discussion of this quality has ap- 
peared in connection with the discussion 
of management. It is impossible, at least 
with the present data, to dissociate it 
from management. Each has apparently 
the same effect on partial correla- 
tions as the other, indicating, as sug- 
gested above, that they have common ele- 
ments that condition both qualities. 22 The third characteristic 
in the relative value of the coefficients is native intelligence — 
r(fi)=.732. This quality enters into other factors and must be 
considered largely as a cause of those other factors. The co- 
efficients of interest in this connection may be listed as follows: 



Business ability i s 
hard to dissociate 
from managerial 
ability, probably be- 
cause o f common 
element. 



r(fi)=. 732 

r(fi) :e=.604 
r(fi) :en=.525 
r(fi) :n=. 451 
r(fi) :m— 229 



r(mi)=.772 

r(mi) :p=.744 
r(mi) :c=.684 
r(mi) :e=.605 
r(mi) :en=.523 
r(mi) :n=.475 
r(mi) :b=.428 



r(if)=.732 

r(im)=.772 

r(ib)=.752 

r(ie)=.732 

r(in)=.732 

r(iv)=.709 

r(ik)=.606 

r(ic)=.514 

r(ip)=.307 



22. The determination of these common elements together 
with their divergent elements would make an interesting and 
valuable study in itself but for this, new ratings are necessary. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 39 

r(vi)=.709 
r(vi) :e=.443 
r(vi) :n=.404 

r(fm)=.848 r(fk)=.677 r(fc)=.472 

r(fm) :i=.649 r(fk) :i=.430 r(fc) :i=.163 

f(fb)=.801 r(fn)=.700 r(fp)=.354 

r(fb) :i=.555 r(fn) :i=-.3Sl r(fp) :i=.198 

r(fe)=.5l4 
r(fe):i=— .C47 

Native intelligence correlates in order of value with the 
other factors as follows : (See Table III) 

1. Management 5. Community value 

2. Business 6. Skills 

3. Education 7. Mechanical ability 

4. Information 8. Physical capacity. 

In its relation to financial success native intelligence is 
affected by eliminating other qualities in order as follows : 

1. Business 4. Mechanical ability 

2. Information 5. Physical capacity 

3. Education 

In its relation to community value it is more affected by 
the elimination of information than by the elimination of edu- 
cation. 

Again successively eliminating intelligence from the rela- 
tion between financial success and the remaining qualities, it is 
seen to affect the financial -education relationship much more 
vitally than e. g. the financial-management relationship. 

It would seem that we could draw the conclusion from the 
above that native intelligence as defined on page 8 is a very 
vital, causal factor conditioning manager- 
Native intelligence ial ability and business ability and techni- 
seems to be a vital cal information. The importance of this 
factor conditioning fact in working out methods of training 
success. and in vocational direction can scarcely be 

over-estimated. 



40 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

The fourth causal factor is information. A study of this 
characteristic is evidently of direct importance in curriculum- 
making. The coefficients of interest in this connection follow : 

r(ne)=.801 r(fn) :e=.557 r(nra) :k=.626 

r(nm)=.772 r(fn) :ei=.458 r(nm) :e=.604 

r(ni)=.732 r(fn) :i— 351 r(nm) :ie=.516 

r(nb)=.732 r(fn) :b=.278 r(nm) :i=. 475 

r(nv)=.700 r(fn) :em=.167 r(nm) :b=.454 

r(nf)=.700 r(fn) :m=.134 
r(nk)=.587 

r(fm)=.848 r(fi)=.732 

r(fm) :n=.675 r(fi) :n=.451 

r(fb)=.801 r(fe)=.514 

r(fb) :n=.592 r(fe) :n=— .110 

r(mf)=.848 r(mk)=.700 

r(mf) :n=.675 r(rak) :n=.480 

r(mb)=.801 r(mi)=.772 

r(mb) :n=.541 r(mi) :n=.475 

When information is used as a criterion the relationships 
with the other qualities remain very positive. When the various 
qualities are successively eliminated from the financial success- 
information relation that relation does not hold its own — man- 
agerial ability and business capacity causing the largest results 
in reducing the value of the correlations. Intelligence also enters 
strongly into the combination while education appears as of little 
direct value. 

Again when various qualities are successively eliminated 
from the information-managerial relation there is a fairly uni- 
form reduction extending in the case of the elimination of busi- 
ness of .318 points to .146 in the case of elimination of skills. 23 

Further, taking information successively out of the finance 
and the management relationships with other qualities, it is seen 

23. [r(mn)=.772— r(mn) :b=.454]=.318 

[r(mn)=.772— r(ran) :k=.626]=.146 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 41 

to affect most directly finance-education and management-intel- 
ligence relationships having somewhat less effect on the finance- 
management relationship. 

From the above data we may conclude that technical in- 
formation as defined on page 8 has an important place in good 
farming.. Nevertheless there are latent 
Technical informa- suggestions that the community average 
t i o n undoubtedly of information is not greatly ex- 
h a s a n important ceeded by the better farmers of the group, 
function in good For example consider the correlation : 
farming. r(fn) :m=.134 and r(fm) :n=.675, which 

forces us back again to the managerial 
cause as being fundamentally vital. The suggestion may be 
dropped at this time that the determination of the minimal, func- 
tioning knowledge may probably contribute to the future of 
secondary agricultural education much more than is now real- 
ized. 

The fifth characteristic in the scale as indicated on page 
22 is field and chore skills. The following lists of correla- 
tions will help to an understanding of the importance of this 
quality. 

r(fk)=.677 r(mk)=.700 r(km)=.700 

r(fk) :p=.618 r(mk) :p=.648 r(kf)=.677 

r(fk) :c=.548 r(mk) :c=.556 r(kc)=.654 

r(fk) :cp=.515 r(mk) :n— 480 r(kb)— 654 

r(fk) :i=.430 r(mk) :i=.458 r(ki)=. 606 

r(fk) :m— 221 r(mk) :ic=.414 r(kn)=. 587 

r(fk) :im=.197 r(kp)=.567 

r(kv)=.514 
r(ke)=.414 

r(fm)=.848 r(fp)=.354 r(fc)=.472 

r(fm) :k=.714 r(fp) :k=— .05 r(fc) :k— 052 

The elimination of management from the financial suc- 
cess-skill relationship leaves a very low correlation. Intelligence 
likewise affects the combination materially and the elimination of 
both management and intelligence still further reduces the value. 



4 2 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

Mechanical ability seems to contribute to the relationship but 
physical capacity adds very little indeed. 

Successively eliminating physical capacity, mechanical 
ability, information and intelligence from the management-skill 
relationship gradually decreases the correlation from r(mk)=.700 
to r(mk) :i=.458. Again skills, it may be concluded, depend 
largely upon native intelligence. 

Using skills as a criterion, management ranks highest and 
education lowest but the spread covers only .286 points. 

Taking skills out of certain relationships affects the 
finance-mechanical correlation decidedly more than the finance- 
management correlation. This suggests again the discussion 
above on pages 25 & 26. 

Field and Chore skills contribute directly and decidedly to 
success in farming. These skills are very largely dependent upon 
native intelligence — a fact which again suggests a deeper study 

into the type of intelligence for it may be 
Field and chore found that a specialized intelligence is the 
skills contribute di- background necessity in farm success. If 
rectly toward sue- so, the next step would be clear — a step 
cess. involving determinations of the type of 

intelligence in question, followed by tests 
to ascertain its absence or presence in the individual. 

The relation of education, as incidentally developed in the 
preceding section, to either success or to the main requisite of 
success — managerial ability — was decidedly disconcerting. One 
might be tempted to conclude from the data studied that any defi- 
nite amount of general schooling beyond what may be termed as 
the community average (one-room, rural school type) tends to 
be a disadvantage. 

Without attempting at this point to make a case either for 
or against general education, let us study some of the correla- 
tions without reference to the finance or management criteria. 

The following bear directly upon the educational question : 
r(ei)=732 r(ei) :n=.356 

r(en)=.801 r(en) :i=.567 

r(in)=732 r(in) :e=.356 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 43 

In these qualities the inter-relations are all comparatively 
high. The elimination of possible confusing factors seems to in- 
dicate that general education is of greater value when not directly 
functioning toward financial success. The partial correlations, 
r(en) :i=.567 and r(ei) :n=.356, suggest that those of highest 
native (farm type) intelligence may not be most directly attract- 
ed to education. 24 

Again let us study briefly the data bearing upon the re- 
lation of education, information and intelligence to business 
ability. 

r(ie)=732 r(nb)=732 r(ib) :n=.463 

r(in)=.732 r(ie) :b=.527 r(eb) :i=.124 

r(en)=.8Ql r(in) :b=.403 r(nb) :i=.403 

r(ib)=.752 r(en) :b=.659 r(nb) :e=.520 

r(eb)— 606 r(ib) :e=:.568 r(eb) :n— 049 

Information and native intelligence again lead education in 
spite of the fact that intelligence bears the same relation both 
to information and to education. The 
General education business element seems also to affect the 
as usually under- intellig'ence-education more than the intel- 
stood in rural com- ligence-information relation. The intelli- 
munities may not gence-business relation is more seriously 
have any special at- affected by eliminating information than 
t r a c t i o n f or the by eliminating education — r(ib) :n=.463 
type of intelligence r(ib) :e=.568. Again, eliminating the in- 
that seems to con- telligence factor from the education-busi- 
dition success. ness relation nearly nullifies that correla- 

tion, while the same elimination reduces 
the information-business relation from .801 to .403. Information 
is important in buying and selling, etc., but it is information 
strongly backed or conditioned by native intelligence. 

Finally let us use the broader criterion of community value 
in the consideration of these mental values : 

24. The possibility of various types of intelligence should 
be kept in mind. 



44 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

r(vi)=.709 r(ve) :i=.281 

r(ve)=.654 r(vn) :e=.386 

r(vn)=.700 r(ve) :n=.217 

r(vi) :e=.443 r(vn) :i=.376 

General education again fails to take precedence. Intelli- 
gence and information factors distinguish the man of largest 
place in the life of the community as well as the man foremost in 
financial success. 

Educational Implications. 

This study is based primarily upon the assumption that ob- 
jective analyses of an industry help to give the best basis for de- 
vising training plans for the workers in 
Objective analyses that industry. Moreover it attempts to 
of industries may get back of the mere facts and skills used 
be used as bases of in working processes and discover, if pos- 
curricula. sible, the qualities, characteristics, etc., 

that function most directly and satisfac- 
torily. It is believed that the discovery and statement of these 
will lay the proper foundation upon which to build curricula and 
training plans. 

General farming and the agricultural specialties offer fer- 
tile fields for such objective studies. Conditions and fundamen- 
tal principles of procedure in these occupations are compara- 
tively stable. The basic skills have been a long time in develop- 
ing. They are complex, not to be acquired in a day, and there- 
fore do not tend to change except with far-reaching and gradual 
social changes. These skills, together with their allied knowl- 
edges, usually pass from father to son because of the farm-home- 
job nature of the occupation and this transmission takes years to 
effect. Because of this very conservative nature of the industry, 
the characteristics of the men in it have become more settled and 
more evident. When once discovered they will stay discovered 
and delimited, whereas in many other lines the study of today, 
although giving valuable results for present conditions, may only 
have permanent value in giving a method of analysis for succeed- 
ing phases in the development of the industry. The very di- 
versity, complexity, and stability of the occupation requiring for 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 45 

the general farmer abilities as a worker, as a business man, and 
as a manager challenge the educationalist. They challenge him 
to analyze the man, not only to lay bases for training plans and 
principles, but to make sure that the training when properly de- 
vised will not be wasted upon boys who may never be able to 
function successfully in such a complex field. 

If conclusions from this study may be accepted, the gen- 
eral farmer, to be successful, should have qualities somewhat as 
follows : 

The qualities, char- 1. He should have slightly more, 

acteristics, etc., of at least, than the average physical ability 

the successful gen- of the community. His strength and en- 

eral farmer may be durance need not be extraordinary, but he 

listed. cannot be a weakling. 

2. He has a certain advantage if 
endowed with some generalized mechanical ability, but if too 
highly developed and specialized, it probably works against, 
rather than with, certain other necessary qualities. 

3. He must be possessed of some considerable amount of 
technical information — working facts available for quick and 
easy application. 

4. He needs to have a fund of rather definite, specialized 
farm skills, like pitching hay and bundles to advantage, shoulder- 
ing sacks of grain with ease and harnessing and handling two, 
four or six-horse teams quickly and effectively. 

5. He is coming to be a business man able to meet neigh- 
bors and townsmen in transactions that do not leave him behind 
in the game. In connection with or supplementary to this buy- 
ing and selling characteristic, he needs certain abilities in keep- 
ing records and accounts, giving him a basis for determining 
costs, profits, etc. 

6. Fundamentally he must be a manager. Herein he 
approximates the industrial manager more than the industrial 
worker, differing chiefly, perhaps, in the fact that he deals rela- 
tively more with things and less with men. 



4 6 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

7. Finally, so far as this study has data to determine, he 
must have a high degree of native intelligence — an intelligence 
probably more or less specialized, directly conditioning his 
skills, his ability to "pick up" technical information and his man- 
agerial power. 25 

The range covered illustrates the possibilities of the meth- 
od of the study and it gives a real basis for certain conclusions of 
value in the field of secondary agricultural instruction. 

Of the seven statements given above every one seems to be 
dependent upon characteristics or qualities that must be in the 
original make-up of the man. Physical 
The original make- endurance may sometimes develop out of 
up of the man seemingly poor beginnings, but on the 
needs consideration average, at least, successful farmers must 
in secondary agri- be able to do average days' farm work 
cultural education. which most certainly require some con- 
siderable fund of vitality. Facts may be 
acquired, learned, but farm facts have to be working information, 
often available on a moment's notice and adaptable to many vary- 
ing conditions of wind, weather, soil and society. Undoubtedly a 
high type of intelligence, more or less specialized and not to be 
gratuitously developed in all who come, is basic in acquiring and 
using these working facts or knowledges. 

Field and chore skills are learned. Nevertheless some men 
never acquire them though they remain on farms all their lives. 
Others seem not to need even to learn them ; they come so nat- 
urally. This is due to original, inherent differences in the, indi- 

25. Doubtless other qualities of great value, or further 
breakup of the ones listed, could be determined, but the ones 
chosen are major and cover as wide a range as it was thought 
possible to include within the limitations of this study. The 
ratings together with the explanations covered an entire class 
period in every institution visited. It would have been inadvis- 
able to try to get further material at this time and in this man- 
ner. Seminar groups and master degree students can well con- 
sider further studies looking to a wider range or a greater break- 
up of characteristics. The writer will be glad to make sugges- 
tions for such studies. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 47 

viduals. Since such differences are continuous and are found in 
all stages, some people with lesser native capacities may acquire, 
under adequate tuition, considerable facility in these lines. It is 
probable that, on the whole, the highly skilled father will be the 
best trainer of his boy, especially if that boy inherits to a greater 
or less degree his father's native capacities, but all boys are not 
thus fortunate. Skills can be induced often under very untoward 
conditions. Here the schools must enter and supplement or sup- 
plant the inadequacies of the home unit — an interesting and most 
valuable field for further investigation. 26 

Again good business principles can be taught, and buying 
and selling, accounting, can be improved in nearly all grades and 
types of intelligence. Undoubtedly this characteristic has more 
elements in common with business ability in other industries 
than the remaining characteristics listed. It is, moreover, prob- 
able that the average farmer needs a higher type of business 
acumen (covering cost finding in addition to buying, selling, 
etc.) than does the average worker in any other industry and 
possibly more than many so-called average business men. 

Of all the characteristics, it is profitable to repeat, man- 
agerial ability stands first. It is less affected by confusing ele- 
ments and therefore tends to be definite. It is directly condi- 
tioned by intelligence and therefore it may be classed as strongly 
inherent. It can b ; e improved, trained, but only to advantage 
when the person in training has the requisite mental type and 
power to benefit from the peculiar training needed. 

Is nature all important in the above characteristics? Is 
it the thing first to be considered? It is very important and will 
continue to be an increasingly important factor, more and more 
to be considered as farming develops in complexity and as com- 
petition in production grows. Nature will take a larger and 
larger part of the consideration unless big scale production be- 

26. This study can not go into the field of individual case 
study, working out from the experience and knowledge already 
possessed by the boy. It is, however, a field of vital value and 
interest. 



4 8 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

comes the order accompanied by the decline of the quarter-sec- 
tion farm type. 27 Nature is of fundamental importance in the 
farming occupation. In this fact there may be some basis for the 
age-long prejudice of the farmer against "book-farming" or the 
advice of outsiders, be they college experts, agricultural teachers, 
board of trade members, bankers, or what not. If so, the recog- 
nition of the fact and the re-directing of our plans in accordance 
with right principles may do more to further proper agricultural 
education than is now supposed. 28 Nature will be of supreme 

importance in the future properly diversi- 
When competition fied, privately or co-operatively owned, 
becomes intense in intensive farm unit. Moreover, nothing 
agriculture, " n a- will do more to promote such an ideal 
ture" will be of su- state than an agricultural education 
preme importance. which adequately trains selected groups 

for types of work for which nature has 
best fitted them. But this is vocational guidance ! Agricultural 
leaders will be the last to consent to any Prussian system of de- 
termination which assigns a child to a particular line of life 
work. And rightly so, for vocational guidance of this kind should 
be smothered in its beginnings. 

Vocational direction and advice are very different things 
from vocational determination as it would be conceived by an 
industrial or political autocrat. They are best illustrated by re- 
cent studies in educational guidance. Such studies are trying to 
discover the aptitudes of the pupils chiefly for the pupils' sakes. 
Incidentally they will lay the best possible basis for the studies 
of the industries in the interests of both the pupils and the indus- 
tries. Ultimately it will be the finding by and the fitting of the 
child for his best place in society. Vocational direction would 



27. Big scale production means highly trained directors 
controlling groups of laborers and making use of specialists. 
Many people, however, are not ready to concede that this type 
of rural organization is either advisable or generally probable. 

28. Agricultural education is far from being generally ac- 
cepted amongst farmers today. That it is not is only too evi- 
dent to those who have daily to deal with the man on the job. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 49 

substitute for the present wasteful and chaotic trial and error 
method, scientific advice and suggestion based upon such evi- 
dence of the child's native capacity as 
Vocational d i r e c- might be obtained through carefully kept 
tion must be both school records, objective ratings by suc- 
scientific and hu- cessive teachers, scientifically devised 
man. tests, desires of parent and child, etc. Vo- 

cational direction, in a word, must be both 
scientific and human. To be scientific it must be objective, to 
be human it must focus on the child rather than on the industry. 
In being both scientific and human, we have faith also that it 
will be really and fundamentally social. 

This matter of vocational direction is a field in itself — a 
field of tremendous importance as well as of interest. Its further 
study is urged especially in agricultural and rural education. 
The need is great in this field because many people (even born 
and living to maturity in the country) will never make good 
farmers and should have been directed or advised toward vil- 
lage or city industries or professions where both their compe- 
tence and happiness might have been fully assured. Secondly, 
the need is great because the social and economic organization in 
the country lacks variety and opportunities for contact or ex- 
perience. 29 The city boy has a wonderful chance for trial and 
error, wasteful as that method may be. The country boy on the 
contrary is significantly limited when it comes to trying out or 
even observing other than one or two kinds of farming and a few 
closely allied types of work. And, finally, the need is great agri- 
culturally, because some means should be found to select out 
and provide possible trial opportunities for hundreds, perhaps 
thousands, of city youths who may have every requisite for suc- 
cess in farming, including mental and physical abilities, adequate 
capital, and the proper personal desire or interest. 

But vocational direction, important as it may become, is 
only one part of the great problem. Given the boy with the 
proper desires and characteristics, how shall he be trained to 

29. Rural Education (The Objectives and Needs of Rural 
Elementary Education). W. C. Brim. Macmillan Company. 



50 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

make a greater success of what he would tend to succeed in re- 
gardless of formal school or vocational training? 

The Training of the Boy. 

Any possible deductions from the present study, of course, 
will be limited to the field of general farming as investigated. 30 
Repeated emphasis has been given to the importance of the man- 
agerial aspect of farm success. In discussing this question 
from the training viewpoint the writer wishes to urge 
that a new approach may be advisable — a possible approach to 
the secondary agricultural education question in general farming 
through the avenue of management. Management involves con- 
trol — control, in this case, of such factors 
The best training as crops and cropping, hand, team and 
approach may be power labor, invested and operating capi- 
through manage- tal — control that intensifies here, extends 
ment. elsewhere, applies cost methods when 

needed — control in changing plans to meet 
emergencies in weather, markets, or what not. Manage- 
ment requires objectivity — an outside viewpoint. The engineer 
is outside the machine. He comes to it and goes from it. He 
gets away from it at night, for the week end, or possibly for the 
season. 31 So far agricultural teaching has tended to lose sight of 
the inclusive nature of managerial success. Courses in soils, in 
crops, in breeds and breeding, have emphasized the break-up and 

30. It is hoped that, since the field is opened up, future 
studies will not only consider specialties like poultry raising, 
fruit growing, etc., but will subject general farming to much 
more detailed analyses. The conclusions drawn seem to be sup- 
ported by the evidence at hand for general farming (dairying 
and allied crops) in New York State as well as general farming 
(corn, wheat, stock, etc.) in Ohio or Kansas. 

31. It is suggested that the very nature of the present or- 
ganization of the farm tends to prevent this viewpoint. The 
farmer is born, brought up, eats, sleeps, has his whole life-long 
being within his job — sometimes under it, if the mortgage is 
heavy. Under such circumstances, only the exceptional man can 
get the inclusive, objective viewpoint of his farm as a machine 
and a job. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 51 

promoted specialized interests long before the inclusive view is 
attempted. 32 

Perhaps a reference and an illustration will help to enforce 
the viewpoint of this discussion. "Professor Mann would com- 
bine theory with practice much more intimately than occurs in 
the law schools of the present day by requiring the student to 
learn to operate the 'case' under study. The student must not 
merely observe and analyze the operation of the dynamo : he 
must actually run it and repair it when out of order." 33 Add to 
this reference the following illustration : A boy happens to come 
upon a man (perhaps a teacher) who is observing a small gaso- 
line engine, evidently his own and with which he is very familiar. 
The boy's interest causes the man to start the engine and operate 
it for a few minutes. Later he and the boy (or the boy and he) 
start it, operate it, take it apart, discover its secrets and prin- 
ciples of construction and working, assemble it, start it again, re- 
pair it when necessary, etc., until the boy knows that little engine 
from a to z. In this "case" there is, first, the whole, the inclu- 
sive, the objective view of a machine. Secondly, there is the in- 
vestigation into its make-up and into the "how" and "why" of its 
working. Thirdly, there is the re-assembling and the re-operat- 
ing of the whole machine. There is understanding and control of 
an outside, objective whole. The parts are known but entirely in 
their relation to the whole machine and its functioning. The 
farm home and the farm machine have been confused. Man- 



32. College courses in farm management naturally and 
rightly are given after the technical courses are well under way 
or completed. The writer does not wish to get into a contro- 
versy on the subject of the collegiate curriculum, much as it 
needs attention. He does, however, object strenuously to the 
policy of secondary schools following the same plan of courses 
in training boys for farming. He is wondering if courses in 
"managing a farm" may not be devised, using as a basis this 
principle of objectivity. 

33. Preface to "A Study of Engineering Education" by 
Charles R. Mann, Bulletin No. 11, Carneigie Foundation for the 
Advancement of Teaching." 



52 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

agerial control can best be asserted when the operator gets out- 
side or on top of his working plant instead of being hopelessly 
mixed up within or under the works. 

If the writer is not mistaken, this objective study and control 
is the essence of good management and, if so, may it not be applied 

to the farm working unit and to the teach- 
Objective control ing of the operation of that unit? This 
seems to be the es- viewpoint, however, is so largely based 
sence of good man- upon opinion and this study is attempting 
agement. to break away from subjective prejudice, 

that the idea will not be urged but will be 
left to propagate itself if it have the necessary worth and vitality. 

An essential tool of the farm manager is the fund of tech- 
nical information that he has at hand for ready use. And it is 
the teaching of this that tends to get us back onto tried and sure 
ground. We feel more certain when it comes to getting ideas or 
facts across to the boy. Because of this 
Technical informa- we are prone to make the class room im- 
tion is an important partation of the facts the whole point of 
tool of good man- our training. The writer feels, however, 
agement. that he must urge the necessity of train- 

ing the boy managerially. The facts or 
information are to be considered only as factors of the larger 
problem — tools of the job — of value only as they function in the 
control of the outside, objective machine that is working to pro- 
duce crops, stock, etc. 34 

If we are to consider the agricultural information as a 
tool — a supplement to the larger managerial power — the problem 
of finding the facts that really function and organizing them into 

34. Two kinds of facts or information should be distin- 
guished — those common, daily used facts possessed by the bet- 
ter farmers and those special informations more often possessed 
by the expert to be given out as advice in difficult or danger- 
ous situations. It may be more important in training the future 
farmer to develop in him a respect for the expert and an ability 
to find the expert rather than the quack, than to train him in 
the expertness that he will use too seldom to keep him in prac- 
tice. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 53 

proper teaching units becomes the important thing. As was sug- 
gested in the first part of this report, the study of this phase was 
temporarily abandoned for the determination of the essential 
characteristics of the successful farmer. The proof of the impor- 
tance of technical information in farming justifies a return to its 
consideration and to further pursuit of its study. It is here that 
the principle of minimal essentials becomes so helpful. The pres- 
ent plan includes the following procedure: 

The usually taught facts and principles in a limited field 
are listed in the form of simple, concrete statements. Duplica- 
tions are eliminated and the list reduced to as low proportions as 
possible, yet suggesting all of the material. This material is fin- 
ally printed in such form as to permit the rating of each item. 
It is evident that each item may be useful or not useful in pro- 
moting production. Five grades of value may be assigned and a 
figure 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 placed after each item to indicate the value as 
considered by the person making the rating. Number 1 would 
indicate that the item was essential and could not be dispensed 
with without serious loss in production. Number 5 would indi- 
cate that the item was never used and could or should be dis- 
pensed with. Other numbers, 2, 3, or 4, would indicate inter- 
mediate or relative values. Such report blanks will be sent to 
large numbers of men in actual farming who are familiar with 
the technical terms necessarily employed. The idea is to get an 
objective concensus of actual use of the facts in their relation to 
production. The central tendencies for each item will reveal their 
values and at the same time show in skeleton outline the general 
principles around which they will best be organized. 35 



35. As a beginning in this method of determination of mini- 
mal essentials, mailing lists from several states are being ob- 
tained and the analysis of market milk dairying has been begun. 



54 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

Such bodies of minimal essential, working, organized facts 
will be of untold service to the teacher-trainer, the teacher, the 
the supervisor and the student himself. As 
Minimal essential it is, the field is so large and the interest 
determinatitons are element on the part of the teacher, to- 
of great value in gether with the tendency to follow beaten 
secondary agricul- paths and lines of least resistance, is so 
tural education. great that often the materials used and 

methods chosen fail to function toward 
clearly defined objective results. Moreover, many minds do not 
have the faculty for going to the heart of a subject and discard- 
ing the more or less useless, or for organizing elements according 
to their relative values. As a time saver what would serve more 
directly and effectively? 36 As a standard of accomplishment, 
what would give a better measure? As a working tool in the 
hands of the man responsible for production on the farm, what 
would be more effective? 

For some time manual training of the indiscriminate type 
has been subjected to severe criticism. The results of this study 

certainly add force to that criticism. The 
Minimal essential application of the principles of objective 
studies are also determination and minimal essentials 
necessary in the seem to offer a way of finding out just 
mechanical aspects what should be taught in the mechanical 
of the work. as opposed to the farm skills' phase. Unit 

courses in gas engines, as indicated in the 
illustration given, in overhauling farm machinery, and in the se- 
lection and care of the few mechanics' tools that should be a part 
of the equipment of every farmer are evidently valuable and in- 
teresting types of work that may be carried on without special 
laboratory facilities. 

36. When it is remembered that many boys have only one 
or two winters of a few months each to devote full time to 
school attendance and further when it is remembered that even 
the four-year high school can legitimately devote one-half or 
less of the time to vocational training, the time element becomes 
of special importance. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 55 

The field and chore skills section of the boy's training- as a 
future farmer is so important as to require special emphasis. The 
tendency is to assume that he has and is 
Field and chore obtaining such training on the home farm 
skills have never and since no one knows how to go about 
been listed and planning and organizing courses to teach 
studied. these skills the work is ignored. Tech- 

nical information and field and chore skills 
are the two most effective tools of the good farm manager. So 
far as the writer knows no one has ever attempted to study or 
list farm skills. An inventory of these would be a good introduc- 
tion to such a study. Carefully prepared descriptions of the best 
practice could follow. 37 Since the boy is constantly engaged in 
skill use and practice at home, it may be that the teacher or the 
school can function most directly from the description and criti- 
cism standpoints. The farm boy probably comes to his agricul- 
tural training with more field and chore skills well developed 
than with any other phase of his training start. Special abilities 
should be recognized ; deficiencies should be checked up. 

A further field for graduate student investigational work 
lies in the business aspects of the boy's training. The farm man- 
agement people have done most excellent 
Success in modern service in devising record, accounting and 
agricultural pro- cost finding schemes. Possible unit 
duction is demand- courses should be worked out from such 
ing more and more data. In connection with this, principles 
business ability. of buying and selling should be drawn on 

as developed in the merchandizing courses 
and purchasing agent work. 

37. Here again is an excellent opportunity for graduate 
study and the possibilities of a scientific measuring scale of skill 
ability are very great. 



56 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

It is hoped that enough has been said to enforce the view- 
point of this study, namely; the necessity for objective analyses 
of the men and the job as bases for curri- 
The work outlined culum-making and teacher-training. The 
demands analyses of field is really four-fold and covers not 
the man, the job, the only the necessity for men-and job- 
field and the boy. analyses but also field-and boy-an- 
alyses. The field-analyses involve the 
standardization of methods for local study so that the teaching 
will function directly toward the type of agriculture of the 
community. The boy-analyses are the natural complements of 
the man-analyses, laying the basis for real vocational direction 
and advisement as well as proper methods of training. Objective 
studies provide a sensible and scientific method of getting away 
from the tryanny of opinion and tradition and this study will 
be of value, not because of the number of principles it may de- 
velop but because of the field it opens up and the future studies 
to which it may lead. 

Considerations. 

1. The basis for curriculum-making and procedure in it 
should grow out of objective studies of the job and of the people 
functioning in that job. 

2. There seems to be a more or less specialized type of 
farm intelligence which needs delimitation and study as a basis 
for vocational direction and vocational training plans. 

3. Training for a job, especially such a complex one as 
general farming needs an objectification of that job which pre- 
supposes both an inclusive and an outside view. 

4. Training in the details of a job should consider those 
details or factors constantly from the standpoint of their inter- 
relations and their sub-relations to the job itself. 

5. Vocational education is not necessarily bound up hand 
and foot in general education — indeed this study would seem to 
indicate a clear severance of the two. General education does 
not appear to function directly toward vocational efficiency. 
This may mean that the ideals of education as actually carried 
out tend to attract a type of intelligence that is not best suited 
to agricultural productivity. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 57 

6. In view of the fact that society demands more of it» 
members than vocational competence to insure its progressive 
development, general education in some form or other is neces- 
sary. A general education, therefore, that is not unattractive 
to the specialized intelligence needed in agricultural work would 
seem to be the requirement. Such an education, in the opinion 
of the writer, should do at least two things : 

(a) Give a sufficient basis in English, Mathematics, Gen- 
eral Science and Social Science to prepare the student to under- 
stand the later vocational training and work. 

(b) Prepare for adequate citizenship and social function- 
ing. 

7. In order to obtain time for this needed general educa- 
tion, two things are necessary : 

(a) Longer period in school. 

(b) Higher efficiency in the vocational training field. 

Note : Such training or education must not be either ultra- 
cultral or ultra-practical. The needs of both the abstract or lit- 
erary type of intelligence and the work-a-day, managerial, con- 
crete type must be recognized. 

8. General education and vocational education for the 
present, at least, should progress more or less separately, each 
studying its respective field objectively, determining its function- 
ing essentials, but co-operating at every turn. Each must realize 
its dependence upon the other ; neither can go far alone. 

9. The following topics are suggested for seminar and 
graduate study: 

(a) Fundamental characteristics of both the man and 
the job in various lines of agricultural production. 

(b) Minimal essentials in all of the fields or specialties. 

(c) Tests to determine innate characteristics for rural 
boys. 

(d) Pre-requisite, foundational, explorative work for 
junior high school courses. 



58 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

(e) Study of the business essentials in general farming. 

(f) Managerial rating sheets or score cards. 

(g) Scales for measuring skills, managerial ability, etc. 

(h) Use of case, unit, project, problem and other meth- 
ods in various aspects of the instruction work. 

(i) Standard record cards for grades and junior high 
schools for vocational direction data. 

The Reliability of the Data. 

So far it has been assumed that the ratings as given on 
the various Form B's (the original data of the study) were al- 
ways correct. As a matter of fact, how- 
The method of rank- ever, it is probable that there are many 
ing individuals for misplacements of men in the groups. If it 
certain qualities or had been possible to obtain four, five or 
characteristics may six separate student ratings on each 
be open to question group it is probable that there would have 
as to its reliability. been differences more or less marked. 
Moreover, the ability of students to act as 
judges may be questioned. It may be very legitimately con- 
tended that the only way to tell how thirteen farmers should be 
arranged in order of financial success from best to poorest would 
be on the basis of information obtainable by the usual farm man- 
agement survey methods. Even this could be criticised and is 
being criticised, especially if the criterion used be the labor in- 
come criterion, which has been the basis for most surveys so 
far undertaken. 

But, granting the validity of the labor income criterion, 
what would be the possibility of its use in such a study as this? 
At first plans were made to tie up the determination of the char- 
acteristics and qualities desired to the groups of farmers in vari- 
ous states who had been subjected to labor income surveys by 
the usual farm management methods. With random selections 
from such lists it was hoped to have several different judges 
(county agent, banker, high school agriculturist and others) 
rank the same group and from these data obtain the desired 
correlations. But this was found to be an almost impossible 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 59 

task. Moreover, the number of groups to be rated would be so 
limited that local variations would be a serious factor, making it 
inadvisable to draw generalized conclusions from the data ob- 
tainable. Finally, after repeated try-outs which tended to show 
certain constant results in spite of possible imperfections the 
method used in the study was decided upon and pursued in as 
guarded a way as possible. 

In general, ratings by these men may be defended from 
the following standpoints : To begin with each man stated that 
the farmers in his group were well known 
Students from farm to him. In fact, in the great majority of 
communities are pe- the cases they were men of his home com- 
culiarly f i 1 1 e d to munity onto whose farms and into whose 
provide the desired homes he had repeatedly gone. Only a 
ratings. person who has grown up in such an en- 

vironment can realize how fully these 
qualities and characteristics are known and discussed by all of 
the members of the community. It is this very intimate com- 
mon knowledge of the financial and other affairs of the neigh- 
borhood that is used as a basis for loans in some of the co-op- 
erative enterprises that have grown up. "Change of work", for 
example, has brought families into close contact with each oth- 
er's skills, physical capacities, personalities, etc. Moreover, the 
students making the rankings are as a class a selected group of 
the finest young men, endowed with keen observation and judg- 
ing powers. Of this, the writer was often reminded in the brief 
discussions that followed the exercise. Very few of the men 
seriously questioned their ability to place the upper and lower 
two-thirds of the groups. Sometimes they were less sure about 
the order of those who were finally numbered 6, 7 or 8. But 
the misplacement of these men one, two or three places would 
tend to effect the final value of the coefficient very little indeed 
as may be learned by working out various trial orders. A some- 
what significant reaction to the method came from the instruc- 
tors or professors. An attempt was made to get ratings by mail 
from a number of schools. To this, in general, a poor response 
was obtained. A few did not answer at all, others did not have 
the right type of students or the special opportunity and a few 



60 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING 

answered frankly stating their skepticism of the proposed meth- 
od. On the other hand no institution was 
Many instructors found in which the ratings were taken by 
and professors on the writer in person where the professors 
understanding the and instructors in charge were not keenly 
problems and the interested and evidently sympathetic with 
method became the method and the possible value of the 
keenly interested. results. Many of these men voluntarily 

took part in the exercise, submitting their 
reports with those of the cless. 

It is probable that most of the errors are of a kind that 
would tend to balance each other and, therefore, have little ef- 
fect on the final value of the coefficients. 
Most of the errors There are, however, undoubtedly two 
were probably of a kinds of constant errors that should be 
kind to offset each noted. One is what may be known as the 
other thereby caus- "halo." 38 This in a few words is a tend- 
ing little effect on ency on the part of judges to ascribe 
the finally accepted higher values than should be in all quali- 
values. ties to certain men because of their gen- 

eral standing and success. For example a 
judge placing a man high in the scale for intelligence, would tend 
to place him high also for information or skill or managerial 
ability regardless of the facts in the case. Opposed to this is 
another error for which correction often should be made. This 
is known as "attenuation" 39 and in general is an error that tends 
to reduce the value of the coefficient. Since the error due to the 
"halo" and the error due to "attenuation" operate in opposite di- 
rections and since with the present data corrections for neither 
can be made to advantage, each will be assumed to equal the 
other and therefore to have little or no effect upon the finally 
accepted coefficient values. 



38. See article by Dr. E. L. Thorndike — "A Constant 
Error in Psychological Ratings," pages 25-29. The Journal of 
Applied Psychology Vol. 4, No. 1. 

39. Mental and Social Measurements by E. L. Thorndike, 
pages 177-180. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



61 



A"}iunuiuio3 (a) 



00 tx 

r-H CO 
O u-. 



l^l^OOO'0*xt^totnT}-Tt- 



\oootx 

OCM CM 



joqe^ 
99.UJ (n) 



O (N 
t^ On 



00 

o 



P^SA'lJJ (d) 



O^OhOOhNO^- C\l O O to 



X^ijiqy 
ssauisng (q)j 



o 

00 



O cm 'O — <N -t 
O ""> O O ro lo 
O tN. <0 00 ts. VO 



Xjqiqy 
IBDiuBqoaj^ (d)i 



00(Ni-|TfrOTt-I^-rfr\|Tt 



<2 



S UPIS 9J oq3 
pin> ppnj Oj) 



O >-d ■<*• '"M 

O On rH 00 _ 
vO CM rfr I\ tx 



Aijiqy 

|BU3SbuBJ\[ (ui) 



UOpBUIJOJUJ 

|Bjn;jnouSy (u) 



uoi;B3np3 

{BJ3U9Q (a) 



t 00 N vO --< (\j x ^ 

XMvOvONK^vO 



— QvOQ^CVJ'-H'-H'-ifvi 

HOtOHfOHOHN 

txt^tx^f^r^t^cox^t^ 



cm ^f- cm rt- o cm 

ts ^ CO ^ O ^ 
't l O'OvOKK 




00 vo t-" «— i io -^f- t^ Tf OoO'— ' 

"-'OrN.occo^t-TfTi- ooo 






ssaoong 

IBIDUHUIJ (j) 



OvNrHQ\ 

Xfo^-o 

ONKK 



8 CM CM i— ' CM O O ro Tf NC^N 
ro t^ ^h c> © O "3" *-< i-OOO 
txlN. KNKvDvDinin IN.CMCO 



t% cm cm -3- oo t-h Q '-' t^ co cm <-> r^ rt- 

00 fON- ^tHO-<NMtS O O ""> 
to t^Tfu-. OOts.lN.t-^OLO^ OOroro 






> z 



r- rt 






- ° ^ ■*C "^ 

3 c rt w 



3 .a i- *o 

~" r- o "T! 






>■> 






S -2 w rt 



Ortrt-£ <UT3^J2 b©«£ .£ ,c ju .c 3J3J3 rt 



IO o 

o p 
tl . (H 

<H<H 



cSA 

C C 

"CE 

eS d 

4) 0) 
P.O. 

aft 

to » 

c fl 
o o 

"3 "3 

*> h 1 
t- >- 
o o 
CO 



62 BASES FOR CURRICULUM MAKING - 

Probably the most convincing evidence that the data may- 
be taken as fundamentally reliable may be obtained from a study 
of Table VI. This is a combination table including the data of 
Table III as given on page 21 and a second set of data simi- 
larly but independently obtained from the 
Two separately ob- four eastern states of New York, New 
tainedand comput- Jersey, Connecticut and Maryland. 42 A 
ed sets of data show casual inspection of these figures at once 
a remarkable con- shows their likeness. In no case is there 
sistency. a wide divergence — the widest occurring 

in the inter-relationship between Field 
and Chore Skills and General Education, a difference of only 
.119. In the main, the procedure in obtaining these two sets 
of data were sufficiently alike to make it possible to compute 
their proable error, which roves to be only .035. 43 

42. These data were obtained and worked up before 
the Middle Western States' data were gathered. The latter 
were much more carefully guarded and procedure more fully 
standardized so it is felt that their probably increased accuracy 
justified their use in the study in preference to that first ob- 
tained. Business ability was not included in the earlier study 
and a few inter-correlations were incomplete. 

43. Having these two sets of da- 
Scale F r e " . T ?" ta obtained and computed in similar 

quencies tals , , . \ , , , 

+.100 to +.090 1 1 ways but entirely independently the 

+.090 to +.080 1 2 probable error may be found as fol- 

+.080 to +.070 2 lows: Beginning with the r(fi) rela- 

+.070 to +.060 1 3 t ^ on w hich has the two values .689 

+.060 to +.050 3 6 an d -^2 the difference, substracting 

+.050 to +.040 4 10 algebraically, between the two is 

+.040 to +.030 3 13 found to be — .043. Continuing this the 

+.030 to +.020 2 15 difference for all the relations (with- 

+.020 to +.010 1 16 out repetitions) may be arranged in a 

+.010 to .000 1 17 scale as given at the left. From this it is 

.000 to .010 2 19 readily seen that the first and third 

010 to .020 1 20 quartiles fall at +.045 and at — .045. 

020 to .030 1 21 Adding these and dividing by two 

030 to .040 2 23 gives the .045 which may be taken as 

040 to .050 4 27 the PE of the differences. Using the 

Z'orn t0 Z 070 2 W formula : PE dif=\/PEa 2 +PE& 2 and 

_070 to —.080 1 31 substituting we have .045=\/2PE 2 be- 

—.080 to —.090 31 cause the PE of the eastern data (a) 

—.090 to —.100 2 33 may be assumed equal to the PE of 

—.100 to —.110 33 the western data (b). Solving this 

—.110 to —.120 1 34 equation PE equals .0345. 



RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 63 

This means that the true value will stand fifty chances out 
of a hundred of being not more than .035 greater or less than the 
obtained value. It means that a coefficient of .600 would not be 
greater than .635 or less than .565 in fifty out of one hundred 
cases. However, the more nearly a coefficient approximates 
zero, the larger the probable error will be but even so, the prob- 
able error of a zero coefficient would equal only .054. So far as 
the present study is concerned, these values are practically neg- 
ligible. 

The writer, of course, must be considered as a prejudiced 
witness. Nevertheless, he would like to state in further defense 
of the method that a conception of its reliability has grown upon 
him, largely due to the fact that scarcely ever did even a second 
or third order partial coefficient prove inconsistent with the gen- 
eral results of the study. For a time it seemed impossible to accept 
some of the relationships indicated by the partial correlations 
having to do with general education, but the further those re- 
sults were considered in connection with 
The resulting coeffi- actual farm communities, the more their 
cients show a re- possible truth came to be recognized. It 
markable consist- is suggested that the age-old indifference 
cncy. of farming communities to much general 

education for themselves, beyond the com- 
munity level, may be a little positive evidence in this particular. 
Again, a third set of data was separately obtained and so 
far as it has been worked up it fully 
The rating of 2,000,- substantiates the data used and in sev- 
000 men would in- eral cases actually proves identical. This 
crease the reliability leads to the belief that the central ten- 
but would probably dencies accepted for the 2,000 middle 
not greatly change western farmers and also found practically 
the actually accept- the same for the eastern groups and still 
ed values. further backed up by the third or final set, 

so far as computed, would be the most 
probable central tendencies were two million men rated instead 
of the four or five thousand that were actually considered. 



VITA 

EDGAR CREIGHTON HIGBIE was born in Green 
Lake County, Wisconsin, July 31, 1875. 

He received his early education in the public schools of 
Minnesota and in Ripon College Academy, Ripon, Wisconsin. 
He was a student at Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota, in 
1901 and 1902 and received degrees of Bachelor of Arts in Edu- 
cation and Master of Arts, respectively in 1907 and 1909 from the 
University of Minnesota. 

He taught rural and graded schools in Wisconsin and 
Minnesota for four years and was city superintendent of high 
school systems for five years, after which he was superintendent 
of the West Central School and Station of the University of Min- 
nesota for seven years. From this last position he resigned in 
1917 to pursue further study for the Doctors Degree at the Uni- 
versity of Chicago ond Columbia University. He is a member 
of Minnesota Chapter of Phi Delta Kappa. 

. 



H163 78 57Q 



\ V «i» 

V *' V* % ck 



°o.. *^r.- A <p ^ ^~* y <v -r^:- ,o 







*»!•» 

2*'* 



>. <y *v v# 



<*- ■ • ' A> v 

V 




^1 



<y °<u "° a ^ '' < 

.\£8fe*: %..<►* :MK. %^ 







A 



O 



^ 




*W 



^ V 



.v ^ *•-• A V 

v .•i^* ^ ^0 '1*. 













►* 



* V ^ 



o V 

* v ^ * • - ° a *, ' <? % ° " ° a <*> 

^ r v .^*« o. 




^c^ 




4- v ^ 



A 



aPr* 






> 





?^ N. MANCHESTER. 
INDIANA 



